Forest structure and biomass

Forest structure and biomass monitoring estimates canopy height, vertical profile, above-ground biomass, and carbon stock for forest inventory and carbon accounting.^[1][2] Spaceborne LiDAR provides direct canopy height and vertical structure samples used in biomass and carbon-stock estimation.^[1][3] GEDI and ICESat-2 provide sampled tracks rather than wall-to-wall coverage, so biomass maps commonly combine LiDAR samples with optical or SAR predictors.^[3][2] SAR and optical data support wall-to-wall biomass mapping, but calibration and region-specific modelling are needed to limit saturation and biome bias.^[2] Hyperspectral observations add species, functional-type, and condition context for biomass models, while vegetation indices are weaker for vertical structure and high-biomass carbon stock.^[2]